We often assume presidential democracy is the most natural form of democratic government. But political scientist Juan Linz offered a stark warning: almost every presidential democracy in history has eventually collapsed. The United States stands virtually alone as the only presidential system with long-term constitutional stability—a point Linz makes repeatedly and unequivocally .

Why is this form of government so vulnerable? According to Linz, it comes down to structural problems baked into the system: “dual democratic legitimacy,” zero-sum elections, rigid fixed terms, and the fusion of symbolic head of state with partisan leader. In contrast, parliamentary systems offer flexibility, coalition-building, and non-zero-sum politics—advantages that helped stabilize countries like Spain during its fragile democratic transition after Franco .

If newer democracies hope to avoid the fate of Chile, Weimar Germany, or countless others, they must consider what Linz called the perils of presidentialism.

Highlights

• Linz argues the U.S. is the only presidential democracy with long-term constitutional continuity; all others have collapsed or suffered breakdowns .
• Presidential systems create dual legitimacy—both president and legislature claim to speak for the people, with no democratic principle to resolve the conflict .
• Winner-take-all, zero-sum elections heighten polarization, especially in multi-party or divided societies .
• Parliamentary systems provide flexibility: governments can fall without the entire regime collapsing, unlike rigid presidential terms.
• Presidential fixed terms create dangerous time pressures, leading presidents to rush major policy agendas before they’re out of office .
• Spain’s 1977 transition is a key example: a presidential election would have intensified polarization, while parliamentary elections encouraged moderation .
• The combined roles of head of state + partisan chief create unrealistic expectations and plebiscitarian leadership dynamics in presidents .
• Vice-presidential succession can produce leaders the public would never have elected, adding instability .
• Linz concludes parliamentary systems better preserve democracy, especially in divided or fragile societies.

Reference: Linz, J. J. (1990). The perils of presidentialism. Journal of Democracy, 1(1), 51–69.

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