Picking up where they left off, Gwen and Marc turn to the two competing versions of the Major Questions Doctrine: the weak, interpretive version and the strong version that demands near-microscopic specificity. And to show how these versions operate in real life, they walk straight into the blockbuster 2023 case Biden v. Nebraska, where the Supreme Court struck down the administration’s student-loan forgiveness plan.

The statutory text seemed generous: the Secretary could “waive or modify” student-loan provisions during a national emergency. COVID was a national emergency. Waive means eliminate. Modify means change. Yet the Court said that forgiving $430 billion in loans for 43 million borrowers was simply too major — and that even broad, literal statutory text wasn’t clear enough. Marc both appreciate Roberts’s now-famous line comparing the government’s interpretation of “modify” to the way the French Revolution "modified" the country's nobility.

They use this to show the full force of the strong version of the doctrine: for truly significant decisions, ordinary delegation isn’t enough. Courts require explicit authorization, tailored to the precise scenario an agency faces — a level of specificity Congress almost never provides. Justice Kagan’s dissent raises the alarm: the doctrine is becoming a “get-out-of-text-free card,” enabling courts to invalidate policies they dislike even when Congress’s language is unambiguously broad.

The episode then zooms out to the real-world consequences: agencies are becoming more cautious, breaking big rules into smaller ones, searching for hyper-specific statutory hooks, and gaming the system simply to survive judicial review. Gwen and Marc map out how this rising skepticism interacts with the Court’s broader project — reining in agencies through major questions, Chevron, and structural challenges all at once.

Takeaway: The stronger the doctrine gets, the harder it becomes for agencies to act — even when Congress wrote broad authority on purpose. The Court says Congress must speak clearly on big questions. But in practice, the demand for “extraordinary clarity” risks paralyzing modern governance.