In September of 476 AD, a Germanic general named Odoacer removed the teenage emperor Romulus Augustulus in Ravenna and sent the imperial regalia to Constantinople, and very few people alive that year seem to have treated it as the end of anything. This documentary follows the whole fall of the Roman Empire across more than three centuries, from Marcus Aurelius and the Antonine Plague to the kingdoms of medieval Europe that grew up in Rome's place.

It starts with the last of the good emperors and the murder of Severus Alexander in 235, then the Crisis of the Third Century, when armies made and killed emperors, the silver disappeared from the coin, and the empire split into three in 260. Postumus held Gaul, Britain and Spain for most of a decade, and ordinary Romans learned to get by behind new walls. Diocletian rebuilt the state as something closer to an army, and Constantine gave it a new capital, a gold coin that held its value for seven hundred years, and a new faith.

From there the West comes apart a piece at a time: Julian's attempt to bring back the old gods, the disaster at Adrianople in 378, the settlement Theodosius made with the Goths, Stilicho's execution in 408, and Alaric's sack of Rome two years later. After 476 come Theoderic ruling Italy as a Roman, Justinian's war to take it back, the collapse of Roman Britain, and the Church that carried Rome's language and law into the medieval world.

Along the way you'll hear from historian Dr. Colin Elliott of Indiana University, author of Pox Romana, and ancient coin dealer Dean Kinzer of Kinzer Coins, from conversations recorded on the channel earlier this year.

This is the Fall of the Roman Empire series recut into a single film, because you asked for it in the community poll. The sources for these centuries are thin, late and often contradictory, especially for the third century, so I tell you where they disagree and I'd encourage you to read them yourself.

THE FULL EPISODES:

Every chapter is its own episode in the Fall of the Roman Empire playlist on the channel.

COMING IN DECEMBER: The Fall of the Roman Republic, the full documentary.

The Money, Borders, Power framework primer is episode 115.

GUESTS

Dr. Colin Elliott, Indiana University. Book: Pox Romana: The Plague That Shook the Roman World (Princeton, 2024). Podcast: Pax Romana Podcast. YouTube and X: @ProfCPE

Dean Kinzer, Kinzer Coins: kinzercoins.com and startancients.com

CHAPTERS

0:00 Odoacer and the emperor nobody replaced

1:19 Introduction

2:54 Marcus Aurelius and the Antonine Plague

30:47 Severus Alexander and the murder of 235

40:14 The Crisis of the Third Century

1:02:04 260 AD: the empire splits in three

1:13:49 Postumus and the Gallic Empire

1:48:21 Daily life during the crisis

2:33:44 Diocletian rebuilds the state

3:01:41 Constantine the Great

3:14:43 Julian the Apostate

3:40:44 The Battle of Adrianople, 378

3:58:22 Theodosius and the Goths

4:23:45 Stilicho, the last Roman general

4:43:21 Alaric sacks Rome, 410

4:57:38 476: the last western emperor

5:23:15 Theoderic the Great

6:01:38 Justinian's reconquest of Italy

6:30:48 The fall of Roman Britain

7:01:26 How the Church inherited Rome

7:29:27 What happened after Rome fell

8:33:34 Closing

SOURCES

Ancient: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Herodian; the Historia Augusta; Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors; Eusebius, Life of Constantine; Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices; Ammianus Marcellinus; Zosimus, New History; Orosius; Jordanes, Getica; Procopius, Wars; Gildas, On the Ruin of Britain; Bede, Ecclesiastical History; Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks.

Modern: Kyle Harper, The Fate of Rome (2017); Colin Elliott, Pox Romana (2024); Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire (2005); Bryan Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (2005); Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell (2009); Chris Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome (2009).

On the Ides of March, March 15, 44 BC, Julius Caesar was stabbed to death by more than sixty senators in the Curia of Pompey, and two days later the Roman Senate voted to keep every one of his acts in force. This episode follows how the Roman Republic reached that point and why killing the dictator could not bring it back.

It starts with Caesar's return from Munda in 45 BC and his triumph over fellow Romans, then the honors voted by a Senate he had enlarged to about 900 and filled with his own men. By February of 44 he was dictator for life, an office the old Republic had capped at six months, and his face was on Rome's silver. I follow the "Rex" episode on the Alban Mount, the two tribunes he removed from office, and the Lupercalia, where Mark Antony offered him a diadem and he pushed it away while the crowd cheered.

The conspiracy was led by men who owed Caesar their lives or their careers, since Gaius Cassius Longinus, Marcus Junius Brutus, Decimus Brutus, and Gaius Trebonius had nearly all been pardoned by him or given their offices by him. I go through the warnings as Suetonius and Plutarch tell them, the morning of March 15, Tillius Cimber's petition, Casca's first blow, and the twenty-three wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue.

The turn comes on March 17, when the Senate met in the Temple of Tellus, granted the killers an amnesty on Cicero's proposal, and confirmed Caesar's acts in the same session, because too many offices, provinces, and veterans' land grants depended on them. After that come the reading of Caesar's will, the funeral and the fire in the Forum, the conspirators leaving Rome, and Gaius Octavius claiming his great-uncle's name.

Our narrative sources wrote long after the fact, and on the big questions, like whether Caesar wanted to be king or why the Senate voted the way it did, I show you where they disagree so you can read them yourself.

THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC ARC:

Tiberius Gracchus • Gaius Marius • The Social War • Sulla • Spartacus • Marcus Crassus • Pompey the Great • Julius Caesar • The First Triumvirate at Luca • The Murder of Clodius • Crossing the Rubicon • The Ides of March (you are here) • Cicero • The Pattern: How Republics Really Die

Next: Cicero: The Voice That Couldn't Save Rome.

The Money, Borders, Power framework primer is episode 115.

CHAPTERS

00:00 The men who killed Caesar, and the vote three days later

01:32 Welcome back

03:00 Caesar comes home from Munda, 45 BC

06:20 From six months to dictator for life

08:00 Rex, the diadem, and the Lupercalia

12:16 The conspiracy of men Caesar pardoned

16:56 March 15, 44 BC: the killing in the Curia of Pompey

20:38 March 17: the Senate keeps Caesar's acts

22:42 The will, the funeral, and the fire

25:27 Who inherits a republic

SOURCES

Suetonius, The Deified Julius 76 to 89; Plutarch, Lives of Caesar, Brutus, and Antony; Appian, Civil Wars, Book 2; Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 43 and 44; Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus; Cicero, Letters to Atticus, Book 14, and Philippics 1 and 2. Modern: Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939); Barry Strauss, The Death of Caesar (2015); Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus (2006).

Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in January of 49 BC, and over the next four years his civil war against Pompey the Great and the Senate ran from Italy to the battles of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Thapsus in 46 BC, and Munda in 45 BC, where the last army fighting in the Republic's name was destroyed.

Weeks before the crossing, on December 1, 50 BC, the Senate voted 370 to 22 for Caesar and Pompey to give up their armies together, and the consul Gaius Claudius Marcellus set the vote aside. A small group of hardliners held the procedure of the chamber, and on January 7, 49 BC they passed the final decree against Caesar. The tribunes Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius fled north to him, and Caesar crossed with one legion.

This episode follows what came after the river. Pompey and the consuls abandoned Rome and left the treasury behind. Caesar pardoned Domitius Ahenobarbus at Corfinium and called mercy a new way of conquering, then threatened to kill the tribune who stood at the treasury doors. He beat Afranius and Petreius in Spain, risked everything crossing to Greece, nearly lost at Dyrrachium, and broke Pompey's cavalry at Pharsalus with a hidden fourth line. Pompey was murdered on the beach at Pelusium, and Caesar wept when he was handed his signet ring. Cato read Plato through the night at Utica and chose death over Caesar's pardon.

By 45 BC every institution that existed before the Rubicon was still standing, and every one of them operated with the permission of the man who had won. Caesar's own account of the war never mentions the Rubicon, so I'd encourage you to read his Civil War next to Plutarch's lives of Caesar, Pompey, and Cato and notice where Caesar goes quiet.

This is Episode 137 of The Roman Pattern.

The Money, Borders, Power framework primer is episode 115.

CHAPTERS

00:00 The Republic outlived the Rubicon by four years

01:29 Welcome back

03:05 When did Caesar's command run out?

05:39 The Senate votes 370 to 22 for peace

07:18 The final decree and the tribunes flee

08:21 Crossing the Rubicon, January 49 BC

12:23 Pompey abandons Rome and Caesar's mercy at Corfinium

14:35 Seizing the treasury and paying for the war

19:22 Dyrrachium and the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC)

24:20 Pompey's murder in Egypt

26:19 Thapsus, Cato at Utica and Munda

32:51 The Republic still standing, on one man's permission

SOURCES

Sources: Caesar, The Civil War; Plutarch, Lives of Caesar, Pompey, and Cato the Younger; Suetonius, The Deified Julius; Appian, Civil Wars, Book 2; Cicero, Letters to Atticus; The African War and The Spanish War (by officers of Caesar); Cassius Dio, Books 41 to 43.

Modern: Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus (2006); Robert Morstein-Marx, Julius Caesar and the Roman People (2021); Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939).

Publius Clodius Pulcher was killed on the Appian Way in January of 52 BC, his supporters burned the Senate House around his body, and within weeks Bibulus and Cato the Younger proposed making Pompey the Great sole consul of Rome.

This episode follows the four years that led there. In 55 BC armed men attacked Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on his way to the consular elections and killed his torchbearer, and Pompey came home from the elections for aedile with blood on his toga. In 54 the consuls struck a secret deal with two candidates, Gaius Memmius and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus, trading their support for perjured testimony, and Cicero writes that so much money was borrowed to buy votes that the interest rate in Rome doubled. Memmius read the agreement out in the Senate, the elections collapsed, and Rome began 53 with no consuls at all.

By 52 the city had two private armies, one led by Clodius and one by Titus Annius Milo. After Clodius was killed near Bovillae, the Senate passed its emergency decree, and the men who had spent years resisting Pompey gave him an office Rome had never had, a consulship with no colleague. Pompey passed new laws against violence and bribery, ringed the forum with soldiers for Milo's trial, and then passed a law on magistrates that put Caesar's right to run from Gaul in doubt until he added an exception for him.

Most of what we know about the killing comes from Asconius, who went back to the official records a century later, and his commentary on Cicero's speech for Milo is the best way to compare Cicero's version with the record.

Fall of the Republic series:

Tiberius Gracchus • Marius • The Social War • Sulla • Spartacus • The Men Who Bought the Republic • Pompey • Julius Caesar • The Secret Deal That Ended the Roman Republic • The Day Rome's Elections Stopped Mattering (you are here) • The Last Stand of the Roman Republic • The Ides of March • Cicero • The Pattern: How Republics Really Die

Next: The Last Stand of the Roman Republic, from the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC, through Pharsalus and Munda.

The Money, Borders, Power framework primer is episode 115.

CHAPTERS

00:00 The year Rome's elections stopped deciding anything

01:42 Welcome back

02:49 Violence at the elections of 55 BC

06:16 The bribery scandal of 54 BC

09:14 A year with no consuls

11:00 Clodius, Milo, and the murder on the Appian Way

14:19 The Senate House burns

16:05 Pompey becomes sole consul

19:26 Pompey's laws and the trial of Milo

21:47 The law that let Caesar run from Gaul

Sources: Asconius, Commentary on Cicero's Pro Milone; Cicero, Pro Milone, Letters to Atticus 4.15 to 4.18, and Letters to His Brother Quintus; Plutarch, Lives of Pompey and Cato the Younger; Appian, Civil Wars 2.19 to 2.25; Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 39 and 40; Suetonius, The Deified Julius 26 to 28. Modern: Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939); Erich Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974).

In April of 56 BC, Julius Caesar met Marcus Licinius Crassus at Ravenna and Pompey the Great at Luca, modern Lucca in Tuscany, and the three men renewed the First Triumvirate by dividing up Rome's consulships and armies for the next five years.

By the spring of 56 the alliance was close to breaking. Publius Clodius Pulcher's street gangs had made Pompey afraid to walk through Rome, Pompey believed Crassus was backing a plot against his life, and Cicero, just back from exile, moved to reopen Caesar's land law of 59. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was running for the consulship of 55 on a promise to take Caesar's legions away. Caesar couldn't enter Rome without losing his command, so he stayed inside his province and invited his partners north. Plutarch and Appian say more than 200 senators followed them there, though those numbers may be exaggerated, and Cicero, our only witness from the time, describes them as two separate meetings.

Over the next year Rome made the deal legal. Cicero gave his speech On the Consular Provinces arguing that Caesar should keep Gaul, the Senate voted to pay Caesar's legions, Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls for 55 under an interrex, the Lex Trebonia gave them Spain and Syria for five years, and the Lex Pompeia Licinia extended Caesar's command by five more. I follow Ronald Syme in reading Luca as the moment Rome's biggest decisions moved outside its institutions, and I give Erich Gruen's case against that reading too, so you can weigh them yourself.

Fall of the Republic series:

Tiberius Gracchus • Marius • The Social War • Sulla • Spartacus • The Men Who Bought the Republic • Pompey • Julius Caesar • The Secret Deal That Ended the Roman Republic (you are here) • The Day Rome's Elections Stopped Mattering • The Last Stand of the Roman Republic • The Ides of March • Cicero • The Pattern: How Republics Really Die

Next: The Day Rome's Elections Stopped Mattering. From the election of 55 BC to 52 BC, the year the Senate made Pompey consul with no colleague at all.

The Money, Borders, Power framework primer is episode 115.

CHAPTERS

00:00 The deal at Luca, April 56 BC

01:42 Welcome back

04:00 How Caesar nearly lost his command

06:08 Clodius, Cicero's exile, and Pompey's grain command

09:07 Egypt, an oracle, and the alliance cracking

11:06 Cicero and Domitius go after Caesar

12:54 Ravenna and Luca: the Senate comes north

15:46 What was decided, and how Cicero backed down

18:59 The laws of 55 BC make the deal legal

20:22 Why Luca changed where Rome's decisions were made

Sources: Cicero, Letters to Friends 1.9 (to Lentulus Spinther), Letters to Atticus 4.5, Letters to His Brother Quintus 2.3 and 2.5, and On the Consular Provinces; Plutarch, Lives of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus; Appian, Civil Wars 2.17; Suetonius, The Deified Julius 24; Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 39. Modern: Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939); Erich Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974).

Julius Caesar broke the Roman Republic years before he crossed the Rubicon, and this episode follows how he did it, from his birth in 100 BC through the consulship of 59 BC and the conquest of Gaul to the deadline of 50 BC.

Caesar came from one of Rome's oldest patrician families and had almost no money. He survived Sulla's proscriptions after refusing to divorce Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, borrowed his way up the ladder of offices, and won the election for Pontifex Maximus in 63 BC on debts that would have ended his career if he had lost. Marcus Crassus guaranteed his loans so he could leave for Spain.

As consul in 59 BC, Caesar passed his land law over the obstruction of his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had dung dumped over his head in the Forum and then shut himself in his house for the rest of the year, announcing that he was watching the skies. Caesar ignored him. That year showed that the Republic's lawful brakes only worked if the man being stopped agreed to stop, and it left Caesar open to prosecution the moment he became a private citizen again.

The Lex Vatinia gave him a five-year command in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, and the Senate added Transalpine Gaul. Over the next nine years he fought the Helvetii, Ariovistus, the Belgae, and the Veneti, bridged the Rhine, crossed to Britain twice, and defeated Vercingetorix at the siege of Alesia in 52 BC. The war gave him an army loyal to him, a fortune he used to put senators in his debt, and his own account of the war, the Commentaries on the Gallic War, written in the third person for voters back in Rome.

By 50 BC the Republic had no safe way to make Caesar a private citizen again. I lean on Caesar's own account through much of this episode because it's often all we have, so I'd encourage you to read the Gallic War yourself and keep asking what he wanted his readers to believe.

Fall of the Republic series:

Tiberius Gracchus • Marius • The Social War • Sulla • Spartacus • The Men Who Bought the Republic • Pompey • Julius Caesar (you are here) • The Secret Deal That Ended the Roman Republic • The Day Rome's Elections Stopped Mattering • The Last Stand of the Roman Republic • The Ides of March • Cicero • The Pattern: How Republics Really Die

Next: The Secret Deal That Ended the Roman Republic. In 56 BC, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus renewed their alliance at Luca and settled the next elections in advance.

The Money, Borders, Power framework primer is episode 115.

Sources: Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War; Suetonius, The Deified Julius; Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cicero, Letters to Atticus; Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 37 to 40. Modern: Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus (2006); Matthias Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman; Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939).

CHAPTERS

00:00 Caesar broke Rome before the Rubicon

01:36 Welcome back

02:39 An old family with no money

05:46 Pirates, debts, and the climb up the ladder

10:33 The consulship of 59 BC and Bibulus

14:19 The trap: why Caesar could never step down

15:50 The Gallic command and the conquest of Gaul

19:41 Vercingetorix and the siege of Alesia

21:53 The Gallic War as propaganda

25:08 50 BC: no way back to private life

Pompey could have been Caesar. He chose the Republic, and the Republic destroyed him. Every structural ingredient Caesar would later use to end the Roman Republic, Pompey had first. He refused to use them. That refusal is what killed him.

In 62 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus landed at Brindisium with the largest Roman army any general had commanded in a generation. He had just spent four years reorganizing the entire eastern Mediterranean world, ending Mithridates, annexing Syria, taking Jerusalem, raising Rome's annual revenue by nearly 70%. He had 40,000 veterans who followed him personally. He had a network of client kings whose crowns had come from his hand. Everyone in Italy expected him to march on Rome.

He disbanded his army on the beach.

He walked into Rome as a private citizen and asked the Senate for two things, both of them legal. Ratify his eastern settlement. Give his veterans the land they had been promised. The Senate refused both for three years. Cato blocked him on principle. Lucullus blocked him out of jealousy. Crassus blocked him out of rivalry. The most constitutional man in Rome had done the constitutional thing, and the Republic responded by proving it could not process him.

That is the moment the Republic ended. Not at the Rubicon. Not at Pharsalus. In the Senate chamber between 61 and 60 BC, when the system refused to reward the one man who still played by its rules.

Everything after that was mechanical. Pompey joined Caesar and Crassus in the First Triumvirate because the Senate had closed the legal route. Caesar built his own personal army in Gaul while Pompey atrophied in Rome. Julia died. Crassus died. The alliance dissolved. And when Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, Pompey ran, because the man who had once held the greatest command in Roman history had forgotten how to use it.

He was murdered on a beach in Egypt on September 28, 48 BC, the day before his 58th birthday, by a former Roman officer who had served under him in the pirate campaign fourteen years earlier.

The counterfactual: in 62 BC, Pompey could still have been constitutional. By 49 BC, Caesar could not be. Individual virtue matters, but only inside the window the structure allows. Pompey is the case that proves it.

This is Episode 129 of The Roman Pattern.

📖 Sources: Plutarch, Life of Pompey; Appian, Civil Wars Books 2–3; Caesar, Bellum Civile; Cicero's letters and Pro Lege Manilia; Cassius Dio, Books 36–42; Robin Seager, Pompey the Great: A Political Biography (2002); Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus (2006); Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939).

▶️ THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC ARC:

Tiberius Gracchus • Marius • The Social War • Sulla • Spartacus • The Men Who Bought the Republic • Pompey (you are here) • Cicero, Catiline & Caesar's Rise • Caesar in Gaul → the Rubicon • Actium

CHAPTERS

00:00 Cold open: the man who could have been Caesar

01:12 Welcome back — Pompey Magnus and the Alexander obsession

02:52 The teenage warlord: three private legions at 23

04:40 Spain, Spartacus, and the credit Pompey stole

06:14 70 BC: the consulship at 35 with two armies at the walls

07:08 The Lex Gabinia and the invention of extraordinary command

08:04 The eastern settlement: 66–62 BC

10:02 Brindisium 62 BC: the moment Pompey chose the Republic

12:33 60 BC: the First Triumvirate and the lesson Pompey learned too late

15:22 Pharsalus, Egypt, and the beach at Pelusium

19:06 The counterfactual: what if Pompey had marched in 62 BC

20:51 Why Pompey's story is the Roman pattern

The Roman Republic didn't collapse because one man grew too powerful. It collapsed because the offices themselves acquired a market price, and everyone kept showing up to work.

In this episode we walk the decade between Sulla's abdication and the First Triumvirate: the years Crassus built his fortune out of proscriptions and fire brigades, Pompey extorted a consulship at 35 with no prior office, Cicero prosecuted Verres and learned that you cannot prosecute your way out of a system where the prosecutors are the next defendants, Clodius took a plebeian name in an afternoon so he could weaponize the tribunate, and Cato's incorruptibility supplied the final push that produced the Triumvirate.

This is the Money-Borders-Power framework applied to the middle piece: what happens when private wealth becomes a substitute for legal authority, and the written rules stay perfectly valid while the actual decisions get made somewhere else.

The Republic still met. The consuls still processed through the streets. Everyone kept showing up to work. That's the part worth understanding.

🏛️ Subscribe for the full Fall of the Republic arc.

CHAPTERS:

00:00 Cold open: the office with a market price

01:29 Intro: Pompey, Crassus, and money coming into Rome

05:28 Sulla's lock, and the cash he left on the table

10:33 The consulship of 70 BC: how an exception gets laundered

15:22 Cicero vs. Verres, the trial that changed nothing

19:55 The pirate command: a second Roman government

28:53 Pompey disbands his army, and the Senate refuses him

30:35 The machinery: how offices got a price tag

36:46 Clodius, the streets, and Cato's last stand

44:47 60 BC: three men write down what Rome was already running

📚 SOURCES

Primary:

Cicero, In Verrem (Actio Prima & Actio Secunda) — the three-year budget line

Cicero, Ad Atticum 4.15 — the July 54 BC interest-rate spike (4% → 8%) and the perjury contract read aloud in the Senate

Cicero, Pro Lege Manilia (66 BC) — carrying the eastern command to Pompey

Plutarch, Life of Crassus; Life of Pompey; Life of Cato Minor; Life of Cicero

Sallust, Bellum Catilinae

Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 36–37 (the Gabinian and Manilian laws; the 17-of-35 tribes count)

Appian, Civil Wars Books 1–2

Secondary:

Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939) — "whatever the form of government, an oligarchy lurks behind the facade"

Erich Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974)

Fergus Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998)

Ernst Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972)

Robin Seager, Pompey the Great: A Political Biography

Elizabeth Rawson, Cicero: A Portrait

Modern parallel references:

Citizens United v. FEC 558 U.S. 310 (2010); SpeechNow.org v. FEC 599 F.3d 686 (D.C. Cir. 2010)

Authorization for Use of Military Force, Pub. L. 107-40 (Sept. 18, 2001)

Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act (STOCK Act), Pub. L. 112-105 (2012)

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▶️ THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC ARC (in order):

• Tiberius Gracchus

• Marius

• The Social War

• Sulla • Spartacus

• The Men Who Bought the Republic ← you are here

• Pompey

• Cicero, Catiline & the last constitutional voice

• Caesar in Gaul → the Rubicon

• Actium