In the ancient world, science was not an isolated discipline but a holistic pursuit intertwined with religion, philosophy, and social ethics. Whether in the "hard" sciences of astronomy and engineering or the "soft" sciences of governance and medicine, ancient thinkers viewed the study of the natural world as a moral imperative to understand and maintain cosmic order.

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia In Egypt, the concept of Maat (truth, balance, and justice) served as the foundation for both law and science. The "42 Laws of Maat" dictated moral behavior, including environmental stewardship, while architectural feats like the pyramids were constructed with geometric precision to facilitate the soul's journey to the afterlife, reflecting a harmony between the physical and spiritual realms. Conversely, Mesopotamia faced unpredictable environments, leading to a more pessimistic worldview and strict legal frameworks like the Code of Hammurabi, which imposed severe professional liabilities on builders and physicians to ensure justice and social stability.

Ancient India Indian scientific tradition was deeply rooted in Dharma (duty/cosmic order) and the pursuit of Moksha (liberation). The Vedic texts laid the groundwork for mathematics (including the concept of zero and the decimal system) and astronomy to ensure the precise timing and construction of rituals. In medicine, texts like the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita established rigorous ethical codes predating or paralleling the Hippocratic Oath. These codes mandated that physicians practice out of compassion (karunya) rather than for profit, treating patients with the care one would give a family member.

Ancient China Chinese science and governance were linked by the Mandate of Heaven, a political-religious concept where a ruler's legitimacy depended on maintaining harmony between heaven and earth. Astronomical observation was a state function essential for predicting celestial events interpreted as omens of political virtue or failure. Philosophically, Confucianism emphasized social order and ethics, while Daoism focused on aligning with the natural world (The Way), influencing the development of alchemy and medicine.

Ancient Greece Greek thinkers shifted inquiry from mythology to rational "natural philosophy". Virtue ethics, championed by Aristotle and Plato, focused on character and eudaimonia (flourishing) rather than modern rule-based morality. This rationality extended to medicine through the Hippocratic Oath, which separated healing from the supernatural and established a professional code of conduct. However, tensions existed; Archimedes, a brilliant mathematician, reportedly disdained the practical engineering of war machines, viewing abstract geometry as the more noble pursuit.