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Candide, ou l’Optimisme (1759) is a satirical novella by the French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, written in response to the devastating Lisbon earthquake of 1755 and the optimistic philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz, popularized by Alexander Pope’s line “Whatever is, is right.” Penned in just three days amid Voltaire’s exile in Switzerland, the work follows the naïve young Candide as he is expelled from an idyllic Westphalian castle and thrust into a world of war, natural disasters, religious persecution, and human cruelty, all while clinging to his tutor Pangloss’s doctrine that we live in “the best of all possible worlds.” Through rapid-fire adventures across Europe, South America, and the Middle East—including the utopian El Dorado and the slave markets of Surinam—Voltaire mercilessly mocks blind optimism, fanaticism, and metaphysical justifications for suffering, culminating in the famous maxim “We must cultivate our garden.” Instantly banned in France for its irreverence, Candide became a bestseller, cementing Voltaire’s reputation as the era’s sharpest critic of dogma and champion of reason, tolerance, and practical humanism.

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Animal Farm, published in 1945 by George Orwell, is a satirical novella that serves as an allegorical critique of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent rise of Stalinism, using a seemingly simple tale of barnyard animals who overthrow their human farmer to establish a society based on equality, only to see it devolve into a new form of tyranny under the pigs’ leadership; inspired by Orwell’s observations of totalitarian regimes and his disillusionment with Soviet communism, the story distills complex political betrayal, propaganda, and corruption into a concise fable that warns against the perversion of revolutionary ideals, remaining a timeless commentary on power dynamics in any system.

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Thomas More’s Utopia, published in Latin in 1516, emerged from the intellectual ferment of Renaissance humanism and More’s own complex life as a lawyer, scholar, and eventual Lord Chancellor under Henry VIII. Framed as a conversation in Antwerp between More, his friend Peter Giles, and the fictional traveler Raphael Hythloday, the work describes an imaginary island society whose rational, communal institutions critique the corruption, inequality, and religious strife of sixteenth-century Europe. Written amid More’s diplomatic travels and his growing disillusionment with princely courts, Utopia blends playful satire, Socratic dialogue, and serious moral philosophy, drawing on classical sources like Plato’s Republic while reflecting Christian humanist ideals; its title, a Greek pun meaning both “good place” and “no place,” underscores its role as both ideal and impossibility, a mirror held up to England’s enclosures, capital punishment, and warmongering nobility.

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