America’s first settlers were afraid of a lot of things and when they were afraid of something they reflexively connected it to the Devil – whether it was places like forests and woods or people, like the Native Americans who had predated their arrival on these shores by hundreds of years. In other words, whatever they didn’t understand, they feared, and whatever they feared, it must be the work of the Devil.

But it wasn’t just the indigenous people they feared and disliked – it was also the Africans. Small groups of them began arriving in the British colonies as early as 1619. They weren’t immigrants, though. They had been kidnapped from their homeland and transported to America against their will. Their numbers grew at a gradual pace throughout the seventeenth century, before increasing dramatically in the century that followed. Nearly every African in America at that time was held in bondage by white settlers, who, while perhaps not terrified by the slaves themselves, were terrified by their persistence in upholding the traditions and beliefs they brought to the country with them.

At home, magical practices had been central to the supernatural beliefs of the slaves. When they were brought to American in chains, their beliefs may have changed somewhat but they still included a legion of spirits who influenced their daily lives. And not all those spirits were benevolent ones – especially toward the white slave owners.